MO3351 Doing and Practicing Transnational and Global History

In his article, “Spatializing Transnational History: European Spaces and Territories”, Ángel Alcalde outlines the two main epistemological approaches to the problem of space in transnational history: a constructivist approach detached from geographical determinism, and one which combines different scales of analysis without challenging established definitions of space. This later approach is one which I believe will be useful in conceptualizing  transnational reproduction  in all the diseparate social and political spaces that it operates within and through. Alcalde highlights a distinction between borders and frontiers, the former being formal demarcations of ownership and the latter being  zones where social systems come into contact. For my purposes, this can be applied to human beings in that intending parents who travel to a foreign country to receive their baby born from surrogacy,  cross a physical border but perhaps more importantly, they encounter a frontier where the socio-political tendencies of their home country interact with those of the country where their surrogate resides. This becomes clear when one looks at the incompatible legal frameworks in different countries which affect the degree of difficulty intending parents have in obtaining a passport for their child born of surrogacy, as well as the  socio-cultural considerations which shape how people in different places view transnational reproduction. The space in which transnational reproduction operates is inherently constructed both transnationally and historically, by rules and regulations set by different nations, on one hand, and by social and cultural  specificities on the other. 

Alcalde draws on Muller and Torp’s (2009)  conception of transnational spaces to explain how space is a functional category constructed through economic, social, cultural or political interactions which acquires meaning  in relation to a set of perceptions and interests in a given context. In my research, the transnational space which I am looking at are all those locations throughout the globe which are involved in the process of transnational reproduction, as well as the localized spaces which  take on a global character due  to the intersection of different people, beliefs, legal precedents, and economic interests. Alcalde also mentions an article by Struck, Ferris, and Revel (2011) in which the authors advocate a focus on micro-scales in transnational research  because  these processes are often best “felt” at the local  or individual level. I believe this point is particularly important for my research due to the important ethical considerations which arise when talking about transnational reproduction. In my research so far I have gained important insights by reading articles and books and by watching  documentaries on individuals’ experience with transnational reproduction. It it my hope that the final product of my research will not only offer some interesting insights into the phenomenon of transnational reproduction, but also do justice to the people directly affected by it , especially those who are most vulnerable and have the least agency in this process: the surrogate mothers and the babies they produce. This blog post should serve as a starting point for my short essay, in which I would like to tease out some of the methodological considerations which will determine how I write my own transnational history of transnational reproduction. Although the topic necessitates a transnational lens, the methodology is less clear, and I believe that devoting this short essay to this topic will allow me to formulate a coherent plan of action for tackling the final project/essay.

The reading recommended this week was not only significant in understanding the methodological approaches used to study space in transnational history, it also helped me make sense of some aspects of my research. Alcalde made some very interesting points about how space is not just a container within which historical events take place. These historical events are also responsible for creating these spaces. The example of migrant Italian communities that settled in Toronto and Buenos Aires demonstrated how geographically independent territories could become crucial points of interaction between societies and cultures. They reflect the permeability of borders. 

The idea of a nation-state has become subject to historiographical debate by scholars. As Alcalde exclaims “even territories were constructed transnationally”. This line in itself was powerful enough for me to think of examples of nation-states that were created as a result of transnational historical processes. I could very well be wrong, but this sentence reminded me of the creation of Pakistan. It was not merely the demand of the Muslim League; it was a result of various interactions. The policymakers of India were heavily influenced by the European models of inter-state peacemaking. As Pallavi Raghavan exclaimed “The aftermath of the break-up of large multinational empires along ethnic majoritarian lines posed administrative questions that were, in many ways, also similar to the partition of the sub-continent on religious lines[1]” 

The concept of ‘transnational sphere’ discussed in the reading was linked to some of the ideas I am planning to explore in my project. International organisations, congresses, the publication of journals were all a part of this sphere. These spaces were the centre of intellectual thought. The Indian suffragettes were a part of a progressive liberal movement that helped shape the lives of women across different continents and not just the west. The anti-colonial alliances formed during this time are also an example of this. The flow of ideas transcended boundaries and created a unique space.   

  [1] Pallavi Raghavan (2020) Partition: An International History, The International History Review, 42:5, 1029-1047

After a very helpful and beneficial unconference at the weekend, my project proposal is starting to take shape. 

It now seems appropriate to start preparing for the short essay. 

Initially, I was planning on doing a historiographical essay outlining the different approaches which I am planning of incorporating into my project. However, I now think it’s more appropriate to write a methodological essay on comparative history in order to avoid self-plagiarising when it comes to my actual project. 

Furthermore, having written historiographical essays last year in HI2001 I think it would also be beneficial to pay some attention to the methodology behind writing transnational and global history. Hence, writing about methodology is a chance to expand my skills and understanding of practicing history. 

After this weekend, I’ve decided that my project will be a comparative study and feel that it would be beneficial to do the short essay on comparative history. 

After (very) briefly looking over the Bloch and Haupt and Kocka chapters, it has become apparent that I believe that I’ve made the right choice to have chosen a comparative approach. As I’m planning on comparing two different subaltern groups and their cultures, the comparative method certainly seems the most appropriate to use. As Haupt and Kocka write ‘Historical peculiarities only become clearly visible when one refers to comparable examples, which are sufficiently similar in some respects, but differ in others’ (p.4). This is a good place to start when trying to establish to what extent there was a ‘Welsh subaltern’, as by comparing it to the well-known example of the Indian subaltern, the answer will (hopefully) become clearer. 

I thought it would be a good idea to give a bit of background to the main figure of my project as well as present a few of the ways in which Sir William Jones was a truly transnational and global actor and then briefly lay out how he links to my project. 

Sir William Jones is was a multifaceted character, as he was one of the most well-known orientalists, a talented translator, poet and philologist just to name a few areas of his life. He went to Oxford University and practiced law on the Carmarthen and Oxford circuits. Later in his career he became a judge on the Supreme Court of in Bengal. However, he is most well-known for his ‘discovery’ of what is now known as the ‘proto-European language’ which is thought to be one of the largest language families encompassing most European and southern Asian languages. He is also the founder of the Asiatic Society (founded in 1784), which is still running to this day.

Jones was a very connected individual with links on opposite sides of the world in America and in South Asia. For example, he had a fond friendship with Benjamin Franklin as a big supporter of the American Revolution, as well as being connected to the British radicals. It’s even been argued that Franklin improved upon Jones’s proposal for a tripartite government which since has become central to US politics. He was even invited to the court of Louis XVI in France, impressing the King with his linguistic skills. Furthermore, his links to the East were extensive as an orientalist he translated Persian and Sanskrit poetry. He fell in love with India after his move there as a Judge in Bengal and was fascinated by the Sanskrit language. He is also fondly remembered in Indian culture as being the harbinger of India’s cultural renaissance. 

His links to Wales are particularly interesting as his father, the Mathematician William Jones (colleague of Newton and one of the first people to introduce the pi symbol) was from Anglesey in North Wales and he was also a descendent of Hwfa ap Cynddlew, Lord of Llyslifon, and the Welsh princes of Gwynedd. It was on the West Wales circuit he championed the rights of a Welsh peasants oppressed by the anglicised landowners who were demanding unreasonable rents and taxes, as well as representing them in front of English-speaking courts and Judges when the vast majority of peasants at the time only spoke Welsh. This angered Jones that the courts would only translate what had been said in court for the benefit of the English-speaking court and judges rather than the peasants as he felt that it was unfair that his clients could not understand court procedures in an unfamiliar language. Thus, he switched between welsh and English in the court room. It was in Wales that he formed many of his values and sided with those who were marginalized and downtrodden by powerful interests often defending small time tenants and workmen gratis. Being of English and Welsh descent he empathised with his subaltern and marginalised countrymen from the position of growing up in the dominant metropolitan culture. His dialogue The Principles of Government (Barn ar Egwyddorion y Llywodraeth) was translated into Welsh and widely distributed and performed in towns and fairs so even illiterate people could understand. This highlighted how Jones could link the metropole and the margins (as the text became a key text in the movement for parliamentary reform) and centred his concerns on the colonised and the oppressed, which carried over to his work in India. I am interested in is this idea of the ‘Welsh Subaltern’ or ‘Subaltern Wales’ and how this influenced Jones in his work in India. It will be interesting to see if there is any comparisons and connections between the Welsh and Indian subalterns. Also, like Indian culture, Wales has a rich cultural past of poetry and mythical stories and Jones also had links with the Celtic revival movement, so it would be interesting to see if there were any parallels between the revival of Indian and Celtic cultures which Jones was involved in and potential the political implications of this on future Welsh nationalist movements. Finally, I’m curious to see how Empire fits into this equation when looking at the subaltern at home and abroad, as Jones was a Judge for the East India Company and a lot of his work was used to produce english versions of Indian laws which permitted British rule Indians by their own laws.

The last couple of weeks have been extremely overwhelming for me, but this week I do feel that my project proposal is finally coming together.  I have been researching my topic for the last few weeks and have quite a lot of information already. However, sometimes I do feel you can have a little too much info at the start, which can confuse and overwhelm you.  This in turn, can make you feel as I did, not sure about where to turn and if you are on the right track.  After last weeks one to one and the surgery session I do feel much more confident and that I am on the right track for my project and also for my short essay.  Although, I am still a little nervous about doing my informal presentation on Tuesday, I do feel like I have a plan to follow and I also have a first draft of my proposal yay!  I can then hopefully refine this next week after feedback from both tutors, peers and the unconference next Saturday. 

My project will be a comparative essay concentrating on Bengal and Dundee, specifically focusing on the labour force in the mills and three main areas (which I will go into in greater detail on Tuesday).   

Looking Forward to Next Year…………

This week I also received an email on information and deadline for my application for my honours dissertation/project.  I honestly thought this would have been a little later on.  However, I would like to find a way to continue my research in this area for my dissertation/project as it is something that I am very interested in.  One idea I have is to expand into the textile trade with Dundee in a specific timeline, concentrating on global connections with the flow of raw materials and textiles in other parts of the world and Dundee, with specific attention to imports and exports.  This will also take a look at industrialization and how Dundee became renowned for its textile industry.  Is this a good idea?? I’m not sure, what does everyone else think?  Any feedback would be greatly appreciated.

Ahead of the informal presentation on Tuesday, I feel like my project is (finally!) starting to take shape, and I am excited to delve into sources in the coming weeks. After a helpful discussion on Tuesday, a chat with Milinda about possible texts to focus on, and an acceptance of the fact that a proper understanding of how to write transnational history will likely come throughout the semester as my project develops, I am in a place where I know where I am heading. 

The ‘hard-hitting’ title is currently still in production, but the focus of my study will be to understand how adaptations of Shakespeare’s Othello can be used as windows into reactions to oppression, particularly in post-colonial India and in Apartheid South Africa. In these cases, the English bard is reclaimed after generations of being symbolic of British superiority and racial oppression. By researching varying adaptations, over many mediums and cultural zones, I hope to discover similarities and differences between them, revealing how a 17th century play can be reinterpreted for and by new audiences, and is felt so very differently depending on context. 

The racial differences Shakespeare wrote about came from the background of cosmopolitan London, but a London where ‘otherness’ was essential to cementing identity at home. As exposure to Europeans and peoples further afield increased, so too did insularity and superiority. This is merely a starting off point to the long story of how Shakespeare and Othello have been used. I aim to focus on 20th/21st century adaptations, in an attempt to explain how Othello has been used to ‘write back’ to Shakespearean oppression after it held such a strong place in colonial education systems. An interesting perspective is that of Dennis Kennedy, and what he calls the ‘Great Shakespeare Paradox’;

“when we allege that Shakespeare is universal, what we are actually saying is that he has been continuously reinvented.”

Dennis Kennedy, ‘Global Shakespeare and Globalized Performance’, in James C. Bulman (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Shakespeare and Performance, (2017).

Whether it be full-scale Bollywood film adaptations, or simply staging the original Othello in Apartheid Africa, I wish to answer the following question: How has Othello been used both as a commodity for widespread enjoyment, but simultaneously as a weapon against oppression and a rebuttal to the myth of the universal Bard? The answer will be revealed by studying him as a truly ‘Rhizomatic’ figure. He is decentralised and continuously erupting, beginning in ‘The Globe’ theatre, but infecting the world, while simultaneously also being affected by it.    

Ania Loomba, a literary scholar from Delhi, has rightly noted that; 

“Because Shakespeare too is such wide territory, appropriated by so many different kinds of readers and audiences, any book on Shakespeare and race cannot aim to be ‘comprehensive’ or ‘objective'”

Ania Loomba, Shakespeare, Race, and Colonialism, (Oxford, 2002), p. 21.

 This is true, but of course a history need not be comprehensive to be valuable. I hope that my study can ask some new questions and draw new parallels. This will be done by taking Othello as a commodity, but also as an idea, and assessing its adaptations. I will add to the debate surrounding how Shakespearean plays are so much more than plays, and thus they will continue to be experienced and loved differently by different people for centuries to come. 

I spent more than two weeks thinking about the topic for my research project. I had multiple ideas in mind that encompassed different historical epochs. After great deliberation and a very insightful conversation with Dr Struck, I decided to go ahead with my research on the Indian Suffragettes. My starting point was a little tricky as I was confused about whether a topic such as this would fall under comparative or connected histories. In the case of Indian Suffragettes, it is difficult to isolate them from the empire’s global networks. This is not to ignore that there were substantial differences between western and Indian suffragettes. 

The fight for the vote was not merely a ‘white’ phenomenon; women of colour were an integral part of it, making this a global issue. I was recommended Sumita Mukherjee’s ‘Indian Suffragettes: Female identities and transnational networks’ by Dr Banerjee. Mukherjee’s primary focus was to analyse the interactions between Indian and British women and their campaigns. Indian women were operating within different geographical spaces and simultaneously adopting various political identities. First, they were the Indian subjects of the British empire. Second, they worked closely with British feminists as allies for their voting rights; third, they showed solidarity towards the women across different colonies of the empire for a universal cause. They occupied international spaces for a myriad of reasons. In the past, most of the literature on Indian feminism revolved around the benevolence of the British reformers and how they nurtured and guided Indian women. Exploring Indian Suffragettes will help understand the agency of Indian women and their contributions to the global history of fighting for women’s rights

Halfway through the minimum amount of blog posts I mean, not for the semester, which is going by unusually fast in my opinion. I’ve been struggling to balance my time between studying full time and working full time in all honesty. But I like writing these blog posts. It allows me to sit and reflect on the work I’ve been doing for this class so far, and it’s giving me a space to write down all my thoughts and ideas for this long project!

I’m extremely excited to talk about Bruce Lee, an idol for me and my family. However, analysing his transnational/global reach makes it difficult to me as I can’t turn this essay into a film analysis or a narrative about how awesome he is. Finding the theory to analyse Bruce Lee is difficult, do I look at him through a transnational or global lens? How do I make this historical analysis in the context of theories? I don’t want to vomit a bunch of theories onto my paper, I think selecting one theory would be good and analysing it through that lens.

For my structure, I would talk about the connectivity between the East and West through Bruce Lee in a cold war context. However, do I call that transnational or global? Especially if I talk about other countries like India (Bollywood cinema) or Japan (Japanese Cinema).

Either way, this seems like a fun and exciting project. BUT I definitely need to research more because I’m just waffling at this point. I think I need to take a page out of Hannah’s book and make a mind map 🙂

Though there isn’t a set topic or required readings for this week, I have been thinking on the previous discussions and how I would apply this to my own interests and potential project proposals. I have found the prospect daunting for many of the reasons discussed in previous weeks readings. The potential to “bite off more than I can chew” with a broad topic or becoming so locked in with a theme that it loses relevance in the broader picture. last week’s contrasting between micro and macro history and the respective problems therein have inspired me somewhat to pursue a larger topic.

Particularly of interest the Linden reading on Labour History encourages me to think that it is possible to explore a large topic, in my case I am considering doing the history of freedom to information, in the form of encyclopaedias, Wikipedia, museums etc. My question remains on how to do this, and where to draw the parameters. Is it so broad that it is too ambitious to fit into 4000 words, even once condensed to a few key features? Would the focus on encyclopaedias be too Eurocentric? The element of selection in methodology and indeed topic itself is still a persisting challenge.

Andrade’s biographical approach was indeed a fascinating and enjoyable read and would provide a much-needed context to intention behind resources and ideas – eg the individuals who write Wikipedia articles and what motivates them. There is a series of interviews with a man behind thousands (mainly biographical articles ironically) who speaks about his mother living in Soviet Russia and what it meant to her to be able to access information without restriction.

I would deem this as transnational/global history, just given the nature of information and books and often the intention behind them. There is an example I learned of in my course last semester of a library on Minecraft that was made to help people in nations with heavy censorship access restricted and banned information and books. I think these examples build a fascinating image of access to knowledge and information especially beyond the nation, which often as a system seeks to limit it. The nation would still exist in the research, but insofar as the topic itself is not restricted to the barriers.  

Or perhaps a better approach would be to take one thing and explore the full reaches of that, much like Linden’s analogy of the tree branches spreading throughout history. For example, following the path of the encyclopaedia, both as concept and development throughout time. This would show the intentions behind it in both its origin, construction and continuation.

There will always be a concern that something important or interesting is being overlooked in any mode of exploration or methodology, but from the reading and discussion thus far it would appear that that is a side effect of transnational history and indeed what makes it so worthwhile. There is always another avenue to explore and another connection to be drawn.

Approaching my final project has been a daunting task, I now know that I want to look at some aspect of transnational surrogacy, however finding an appropriate entry point into this topic is proving difficult. There are so many different possible approaches. A feminist orientation, which views transnational reproduction as a form of reproductive labor, would allow me to examine the gender relations which underpin this phenomenon. While a post-colonial outlook might better capture the global and racialized inequalities, the enduring legacy of imperialism, which serve to justify transnational surrogacy and the commodification of human beings. A micro-historical approach would allow me to look more closely at the impact these global processes have on specific places and people. On the other hand, by examining the legal and institutional frameworks in which these processes operate, I may be in a better position to trace the connections that exist between different sites of transnational surrogacy. These are just a few of the many thoughts running through my head. 

In my preliminary research, I have looked at Daisy Deomampo’s Transnational Reproduction: Race, Kinship, and Commercial Surrogacy in India, and will use this text as a jumping off point for further study. Based on extensive field work and interviews of a diverse set of agents involved in the process of transnational gestational surrogacy in India, Deomampo examines transnational reproduction as a social formation which reinforces stratification. She looks at the racial reproductive imaginaries which prop up the unequal relations that characterize transnational surrogacy. Deomampo opens her book with anecdotes from her field work, her comments on a middle eastern entrepreneur whose company facilities surrogacy arrangements frame transnational surrogacy as a practice which benefits both surrogate and intended parents, however she quickly turns this assertion on its head by analyzing the aspects of transnational surrogacy which construct surrogates as racial Others who have inherently high risk pregnancies. Deomampo does a particularly good job of describing the transnational orientation of the global phenomenon of surrogacy. She describes meeting South African women who travelled to India to donate their eggs, these eggs would most likely then be placed in the uteruses of Indian women, who would deliver these babies for parents who most of the time hailed from countries located in the global north. Deomampo highlights the global connections which link disperate people all over the world, and has shown me how well suited this topic is for a transnational approach. 

Another source I found incredibly interesting was an article written by Emma Lamberton, “Lessons from Ukraine: Shifting International Surrogacy Policy to Protect Women and Children.” Written a few years after Deomampo’s book, Lamberton’s piece is a reaction to the rise in surrogacy in Ukraine following its banning in India, Thailand and Nepal due to human rights violations. She notes that the Ukraine holds over a quarter of the global surrogacy market, most of which is facilitated through a private, for-profit company called Biotexcom. This company has been able to escape governmental oversight due to the technicality that the company is not registered in Ukraine. Unencumbered by humans rights or legal considerations, this company has taken advantage of the six billion US dollar market of reproductive labor. Lamberton calls for policy implementation based on the Hague Conference’s Experts’ Group on the Parentage/Surrogacy Project in order to safeguard prospective parents, children, and their surrogate mothers. She notes that children born from surrogacy are not recognized as citizens of their birth country, which means that they are not eligible for adoption. In cases where prospective parents abandon their children created through surrogacy, often because they have disabilities, these children are essentially state-less by law and located in countries which oftentimes do not have the resources to cope with their disabilities. I am just beginning to wrap my head around this, but I am sure of one thing, this is an incredibly upsetting realisation. How is it possible that the international community has not done something to restore the rights of citizenship for these newborns? 

Highlighting two very different aspects of the phenomenon of transnational surrogacy, these two contributions have allowed me to consider the impacts of transnational surrogacy at the individual level as well as the societal level. Although I am still not sure exactly in what direction my project will go, after examining these sources and a few others, I am very excited to see where it takes me!